Structural Geology

COVER PAGE......Page 1
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY......Page 2
CONTENTS......Page 4
PREFACE......Page 7
TABLE......Page 9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 10
PART I ( INTRODUCTION)......Page 11
1-1. WHAT ARE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS......Page 13
1-2. STRUCTURE- TECTONICS AND THE USE OF MODELS......Page 14
1-3. THE INTERIOUS OF THE EARTH AND THE OTHER TERRESTRIAL BODIES......Page 15
FIGURE 1-1. DIAGRAMMATIC CROSS SECTION OF EARTH SHOWING THE INNER AND OUTER CORE THE MANTLE THE LITHOSPHERE AND CRUST.......Page 16
FIGURE 1-2. DISTRIBUTION OF LAND CONTINENTAL SHELVES OCCAN BASIN AND TECTONIC PLATES ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH......Page 17
FIGURE 1-3. DISTRIBUTION OF TOPOGRAPHIC ELEVATIONS ON THE EARTH A. CUMUIATIVE CURVE SHOWING THE PERCENT OF THE EARTHS SURFACE THAT IS ABOVE A PARTICULAR ELEVATION B.......Page 18
1-5. SUMMARY AND PREVIEW......Page 19
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 20
2-1. THE ORIENTATION OF STRUCTURES......Page 21
FIGURE 2-1. THE STRIKE AND DIP OF A PLANAR STRUCTURE......Page 22
2-2. GEOLOGIC MAPS......Page 23
2-3. CROSS SECTIONS: PORTRAYAL OF STRUCTURES IN THREE DIMENSIONS......Page 24
FIGURE 2-3. THE EFFECT OF VERTICAL EXAGGERATION ON CROSS SECTION......Page 25
FIGURE 2-5. FLUTE CASTS......Page 26
PRIMARY STRUCTURES IN IGNEOUS ROCKS......Page 27
UNCONFORMITIES......Page 28
FIGURE 2-11. TYPES OF UNCONFORMITIES......Page 29
FIGURE 2-12. ROSE DIAGRAM OF THE FAULTS AND JOINTS IN AN AREA......Page 30
FIGURE 2-14. PROJECTION OF LOWER HALF OF THE PLOTTING SPHERE ONTO THE IMAGE PLANE......Page 31
SEISMIC STUDIES......Page 32
FIGURE 2-1-2. ILLUSTRATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SEISMIC REFRACTION IN A TWO- LAYER STRUCTURE......Page 33
FIGURE 2-15. SEISMIC REFLECTION PROFILES......Page 34
FIGURE 2-17. EQAL- AREA PROJECTIONS SHOWING THE RADIATION PATTERN OF COMPRESSION FIRST MOTIONS (C) AND RAREFACTION FIRST MOTION FOR THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF FAULTES......Page 36
FIGURE 2-2-1. THE PRINCIPLE OF STACKING OF SEISMIC RECORDS......Page 37
FIGURE 2-3-1. THE MIGRATION OF SEISMIC SINGNALS CORRECTS THE SEISMIC RECORDS TO GIVE THE TRUE LOCATION AND DIP OF REFLECTIONS......Page 38
FIGURE 2-3-2. THE END OF DISCONTINUOUS REFLECTOR (D) ACTS AS A DIFFRACTION  POINTS AND RADIARES SEISMIC ENERGY IN ALL DIRECTIONS FOR ANY ANGLE OF  INCIDENCE......Page 39
GEOMAGNETIC STUDIES......Page 40
FIGURE 2-19. APPARENT POLAR WANDER PARTH (APW) FOR NORTH AMERICA (CIRCLES) AND FOR EUROPE......Page 41
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 42
FIGURE 2-4-1-C.......Page 43
PART II  (BRITTLE DEFORMATION)......Page 44
3-1. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS AND EXTENTION FRACTURES......Page 46
FIGURE 3-2. JOINTS......Page 47
FIGURE 3-4. FRACTURE-CONTROLLED TOPOGRAPHY SINAI PENINSULA EGYPT......Page 48
FIGURE 3-6. COLUMNAR JOINTING......Page 49
ORIENTATION OF FRACTURES......Page 50
FIGUE 3-10. TERMINATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL JOINTS......Page 51
3-3. FEATURES OF FRACTURE SURFACES......Page 52
FIGURE 3-13. PLUMOSE STRUCTURE OR HACKLE PLUMES IN A MUDSTONE AND B CHALK......Page 53
FIGURE 3-14. SCHEMATIC BLOCK DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING SURFACE MARKINGS ON JOINT FACES......Page 54
3-4. TIMING OF FRACTURE FORMATION......Page 55
FIGURE 3-15. ORIGIN OF FRACTURE INTERSECTIONS......Page 56
FRACTURES ASSOCIATED WITH FOLDS......Page 57
FIGURE 3-17. FRACTURES ASSOCIATED WITH FOLDS......Page 58
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 59
4-1. TYPE OF FAULTS......Page 60
FIGURE 4-2. SLIP VECTORS AND SLIP COMPONENTS ON A FAULT SURFACE......Page 61
FEATURES INTRINSIC TO FAULTS......Page 62
FIGURE 4-5. CATACLASTIC ROCKS......Page 63
FIGURE 4-7. QARTZ MYLONITIC SHOWING LARGE FELDESPAR PORPHYROCLAST IN A MUCH FINER - GRAINED MATRIX OF STRONGLY RECRYSTALLIZED QARTZ GRAINS......Page 64
EFFECTS OF FAULTING ON GEOLOGIC OR STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS......Page 65
FIGURE 4-9. CHARACTRISTICS OF A PLUTONIC INTRUSIVE CONTACT IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS......Page 66
FIGURE 4-11. DRAG FOLDS IN SEDIMENTARY LAYERS ALONG FAULTS......Page 67
PHYSIOGRAPHIC CRITERIA FOR FAULTONG......Page 68
FIGURE 4-14. COMPLETE DETERMINATION OF THE DISPLACEMENT OR SLIP VECTOR FROM THE OFFSET OF A UNIQUE LINEAR FEATURE CUT BYA FAULT......Page 69
FIGURE 4-15. SLICKENFIBERS  AS INDICATTORS OF SHEAR SENSE AND MINIMUM DISPLACMENT......Page 70
FIGURE 4-16. SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA ON BRITTLE FAULTS......Page 71
FIGURE 4-17. SHEAR SENSE CRITERIA IN DUCTILE SHEAR ZONES......Page 72
FIGURE 4-18. SHORELINES OF AN OLIGOCEN SEDIMENTARY BASIN OFFSET ABOUT 300 KM ALONG THE SAN ANDREAS FAULT......Page 73
FIGURE 4-20. INTERPRETATION OF A FAULT FROM A SREACTURE CONTOUR MAP......Page 74
FIGURE 4-22. BLOCK DIAGRAM INDICATING THE STRIKE SEPRATION AND THE DIP SEPARATION OF A FAULTED LAYER ON A DIP-SLIP NORMAL FAULT WHERE THE FOOTWALL BLOCK HAS BEEN ERODED DOWN TO THE SAME ELEVATION AS THE HANGING WALL BLOCK......Page 75
4-4. FAULTS IN THREE DIMENSIONS......Page 76
FIGURE 4-25. GEOMETRY OF FAULT RAMPS......Page 77
FIGURE 4-27. BLOCK DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE GEOMETRY OF TERMINATION LINES AT FAULT INTERSECTIONS......Page 78
FIGURE 4-29. SPLAY FAUTS AND THE GEOMETRY OF BRANCH LINES......Page 79
4-5. REFINEMENTS......Page 80
FIGURE 4-31. FAULTING OF MONTAGUE ISLAND......Page 81
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 82
SEPRATION AND NORMAL FAULTING......Page 83
FIGURE 5-2. SEPRATIONS OF STRATIGRAPHY CERATED BY DIP-SLIP NORMAL FAULTS CUTTING DIFFERENT ATTITUDES OF BEDDING......Page 84
FIGURE 5-3. SEISMIC REFLECTION PROFILE OF A LISTRIC NORMAL FAULT......Page 85
FIGURE 5-4. SYSTEMS OF NORMAL FAULTS COMMONLY ARE CHARACTERIZED BY A MAIN FAULT WITH ASSOCIATED SUBSIDIARY FAULTS AND BY LOW-ANGLE DETACHMENT FAULTS WITH IMBRICATE FAULT BLOCKS IN THE HANGING WALL BLOCK......Page 86
5-3. STRUCTURAL ASSOCIATION OF NORMAL FAULTS......Page 87
LOCAL NORMAL FAULTS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER STRUCTURES......Page 88
FIGURE 5-7. NORMAL FAULTS OVER STRUCTURAL DOMES......Page 89
FIGURE 5-9. MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING REGIONS DOMINATED BY EXTENTIONAL FAULTING......Page 90
FIGURE 5-10. THE EXTENSIONAL PROVINCE  OF THE NORTH AMERICAN......Page 91
FIGURE 5-11. MODEL OF THE FAULT GEOMETRY IN BASEMENT ROCKS OF A CONTINENTAL EXTENSIONAL PROVINCE......Page 92
FIGURE 5-12. STRUCTURE OF THE GREAT BASIN IN THE BASIN AND RANGE PROVINCE OF NEVADA AND NEIGHBORING REGIONS SHOWING THE TITLE DIRECTION OF MAJOR RANGES AND OF TERTIARY ROCKS......Page 93
FIGURE 5-13. FAULTONG IN THE WHIPPLE MOUNTAIN METAMORPHIC CORE COMPLEX OF THE BASIN AND RANGE PROVINCE SOUTHEASTERN CALIFORNIA......Page 94
FIGURE 5-14. NORMAL FAULT PROVINCE IN THE GULF COAST AREA......Page 95
5-4. KINEMATIC MODELS OF NORMAL FAULT SYSTEMS......Page 97
FIGURE 5-17. MODEL FOR THE GEOMETRY OF DISPLACEMENT ON A LISTRIC NORMAL FAULT ACCOMPANIED BY ROLLOVER FOLDING OR ANTITHETIC NORMAL FAULTONG......Page 98
FIGURE 5-19. MODEL FOR THE GEOMETRY OF DISAPLACMENT ON A SET OF IMBRICATE LISTRIC NORMAL FAULTS......Page 99
FIGURE 5-20. MODEL FOR THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF A LISTRIC FAN AND AN EXTENSIONAL DUPLEX ASSOCIATED WITH A RAMP AND FLAT IN A NORMAL FAULT......Page 100
FIGURE 5-21. COMPLETE CROSS SECTIONS ACCOUNTING FOR THE EXTENTION IN PROVINCES OF NORMAL FAULTING......Page 101
ESTIMATING EXTENSION ON THE BASIS OF FAULT GEOMETRY......Page 102
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 103
6-1. RECONGNITION OF THRUST FAULTS......Page 105
FIGURE 6-2. THE EFFECT OF THE DIP OF STRATA ON THE SEPARATION DEVELOPED AS A RESULT OF THRUST FAULTING......Page 106
FIGURE 6-3. THE WIND RIVER THRUST UNDER THE WIND RIVER MOUNTAINS IN WYOMING MAINTAINS AN ALMOST CONSTANT ANGLE THROUGH THE ENTIRE CRUST......Page 107
FIGURE 6-5. IDEALIZED CROSS SECTION OF A LOW - ANGLE THRUST SHOWING THE THRUST SURFACE CUTTING UP-SECTION AT A FRONTAL RAMP FROM ONE HORIZONTAL GLIDE SURFACE TO ANOTHER......Page 108
FIGURE 6-6. THE MCCONNELL THRUST AT THE BRAZEAU RIVER IN ALBERTA......Page 109
FIGURE 6-7. STRUCTURE OF LOW-ANGLE THRUST FAULTS......Page 110
THRUST SYSTEMS......Page 111
FIGURE 6-10. DIAGRAMMATIC CROSS SECTIONS ILLUSTRATING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FOLDS AND THRUST FAULTS......Page 112
FIGURE 6-11. MAJOR THRUST SYSTEMS SHOWING THE FORELAND HINTERLAND SALIENT OR VIRGATION AND REENTRANT OR SYNTAXIS RELATIVE TO THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT FOR EACH FOLD AND THRUST BELT......Page 113
FIGURE 6-13. THRUST SHEETS SEGMENTED BY TEAR FAULTS......Page 114
FIGURE 6-15. CROSS SECTION OF DUPLEX STRUCTURE NEAR THE WATERTON FIELD IN THE LEWIS THRUST SHEET NEAR THE CANADA - USA BORDER......Page 115
6-4. KINEMATIC MODELS OF THRUST FAULT SYSTEMS......Page 116
6-5. GEOMETRY AND KINEMATICS OF THRUST SYSTEMS IN THE HINTERLAND......Page 117
6-6. ANALYSIS OF DISPLACMENT ON THRUST FAULTS......Page 118
DETERMINING THE AMOUNT OF DISPLACEMENT FROM MAPS......Page 119
FIGURE 6-21. SHORTENING ASSOCIATED WITH THRUST FAULTING......Page 120
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 121
CHAPTER 7 (STRIKE - SLIP FAULTS)......Page 122
7-1. CHARACTERISTICS OF STRIKE - SLIP FAULTS......Page 123
FIGURE 7-2. MAJOR STRIKE-SLIP FAULT SYSTEMS......Page 124
FIGURE 7-4. STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH STRIKE - SLIP FAULTS AND THEIR ORIENTATIONS RELATIVE TO THE SHEAR SENSE ON THE FAULT......Page 125
FIGURE 7-5. THE GEOMETRY AND TERMINOLOGY FOR RIGHT AND LEFT BENDS AND STEPOVERS......Page 126
FIGURE 7-6. FORMATION OF AN EXTENSIONAL DUPLEX AT AN EXTENTIONAL BEND......Page 127
TERMINATIONS......Page 128
FIGURE 7-8. EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE FLOWER STRUCTURE FROM AN EXTENTIONAL DUPLEX ON A DEXTRAL STRIKE - SLIP FAULT FROM THE ANDAMANA SEA BETWEN INDIA AND THE MALAY PENINSULA......Page 129
FIGURE 7-10. TERMINATION OF FAULTS BY THE FORMATION OF IMBRICARE FANS......Page 130
FIGURE 7-11. TEAR FAULTS IN THE JURA FOLD AND THRUST BELT......Page 131
FIGURE 7-13. THE SAN ANDREAS-GARLOCK FAULT SYSTEMS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA......Page 132
FIGURE 7-14. MAP OF FAULTS IN SOUTHERN PAKISTAN......Page 133
FIGURE 7-16. KINEMATIC MODEL OF A STRIKE-SLIP FAULT WHERE PART OF THE SHEARING IS DISTRIBUTED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE FAULT......Page 134
FIGURE 7-17. RIGID STRIKE-SLIP FAULT BLOK MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAN ANDREAS FAULT SYSTEM IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA......Page 135
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 136
8-1. PREVIEW......Page 137
TABLE 8-1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF STRESS......Page 138
FIGURE 8-1. THE INTENSITY OF AN APPLIED FORCE INCREASES AS THE AREA ACROSS WHICH IT IS DISTRIBUTED DECREASES......Page 139
FIGURE 8-3. THE MOHR CIRCLE SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR THE COMPONENTS OF THE STREES AT A POINT......Page 140
FIGURE 8-1-3. A VECTOR V AND ITS VECTOR COMPONENTS......Page 141
FIGURE 8-1-5. GEOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE SCALAR COMPONENTS OF THE SAME VECTOR IN TWO DIFFERENTLY ORIENTED COORDINATE SYSTEMS......Page 142
FIGURE 8-4. DETERMINATION OF THE STRESS COMPONENTS AN SURFACES OF DIFFERENT ORIENTATION......Page 143
THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS AT A POINT......Page 144
FIGURE 8-5. REPRESENTATION OF THE STATE OF TWO - DIMENSIONAL STRESS AT A POINT......Page 145
THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRESS AT A POINT......Page 146
FIGURE 8-6. THE STSTE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRESS AT A POINT......Page 147
STRESS TENSOR NOTATION......Page 148
8-3. THE MOHR DIAGRAM FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS......Page 149
FIGURE 8-7. PLOTTING ON A MOHR DIAGRAM THE STRESS AT A POINT......Page 150
FIGURE 8-8. THE GEOMETRIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANES IN PHYSICAL SPACE AND THE STRESS COMPONENTS ON THOSE PLANECS......Page 151
FIGURE 8-10. PLANES OF MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS......Page 152
8-4. THE STRESS TENSOR......Page 153
BOX 8-2. WHAT IS A TENSOR?......Page 154
FIGURE 8-11. THE GEOLOGIC SIGN CONVENTION FOR STRESS TENSOR COMPONENTS IS DETERMINED BY THE DIRECTION OF THE TRACTION COMPONENT ACTING ON THE NEGETIVE SIDE OF THE COORDINATE SURFACE......Page 156
8-5. A CLOSER LOOK AT THE MOHR CIRCLE FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS......Page 157
FIGURE 8-12. GEOMETRY THAT PERMITS A TWO -DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS OF STRESS......Page 158
FIGURE 8-4-1. THE PAIRS OF PRINCIPAL COORDINATE AXES FOR THE THREE MOHR CIRCLES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRESS......Page 159
5-SCALAR INVARIANTS OF THE STRESS......Page 160
FIGURE 8-4-4. PLANES OF MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS IN THREE DIMENSIONS......Page 161
FIGURE 8-13. GEOMETRY FOR DETERMINING THE NOMAL STRESS AND SHEAR STRESS ON A PLANE P OF ANY GIVEN ORIENTATION THROUGH A POINT......Page 162
8-6. TERMINOLOGY FOR STATES OF STRESS......Page 164
FIGURE 8-14. MOHR DIAGRAM FOR SPECIAL STATES OF STRESS......Page 165
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 166
FIGURE 8A-1 SIMPLIFIED MODEL OF A FAULT BLOCK RESTING ON A DETACHMENT......Page 167
DISCUSSION......Page 168
FIGURE 8A-2. MOHR CIRCLE CONSTRUCTION FOR THE ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM......Page 169
QUESTION 3......Page 170
QUESTION 5......Page 171
PROCEDURE......Page 172
FIGURE 8A-4. DETERMINING THE COMPONENTS OF SURFACE STRESS ON PLANE A AND PLANE B......Page 173
ELASTIC DEFORMATION......Page 174
FIGURE 9-1. THE POISSON EFFECT......Page 175
EPPERIMENTAL FRACTURING......Page 176
FIGURE 9-3. FRACTURE CRITERION FOR UNIANXTAL TENSION......Page 177
9-3. THE COULOMB FRACTURE CRITERION FOR CONFINED COMPRESSION......Page 178
BOX 9-1. THE COULOMB FRACTURE CRITERION IN TERMS OF PRINCIPAL STRESSES......Page 179
FIGURE 9-5. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF THE FRACTURE ANGLE......Page 180
FIGURE 9-6. THE SURFACE STRES COMPONENTS σ AND σ AND THE CRITICAL SHEAR STRESS σ NEEDED FOR FRACTURE ARE PLOTTED VERSUS THE ORIENTATION  Ө OF THE SURFACE FOR A  PARTICULAR CRITICAL STATE OF  STRESS  ON A SAMPLE OF BEREA SANDSTONE......Page 181
CONFINING PRESSURE AND SHEAR FAILURE......Page 182
FIGURE 9-8. SINISTRAL SIMPLE SHEAR IN A CLAY BLOCK INDUCED BY SHEARING THE SUBSTRATE OF THE CLAY......Page 183
FIGURE 9-10. EFFECT OF CONFINING PRESSURE P ON THE MODE OF DEFORMATION IN WOMBEYAN MARBLE AT ROOM TEMPERATURE......Page 184
FIGURE 9-12. VARIATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL STRESS( Dσ=σ1-σ3) AND SHEAR DISPLACEMENT WITH TIME......Page 185
FIGURE 9-13. MOHR DIAGRAM WITH THE EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS PLOTTED ON THE ABCISSA......Page 186
EFFECT OF ANISOTROPY......Page 187
EFFECT OF INTERMEDIATE PRINCIPAL STRESS......Page 188
FIGURE 9-16. THE MINIMUM STRENGTH FOR A ROCK WITH A PLANAR  MACHANICAL ANISOTROPY......Page 189
9-7. THE GRIFFITH THEORY OF FRACTURE......Page 190
FORMATION OF TENSION FRACTURES......Page 191
FIGURE 9-20. ORIENTATION OF THE MOST CRITICALLY STRESSED GRIFFITH CRACK UNDER APPLIED CONFINED COMPRESSION......Page 192
FIGURE 9-21. THE PROCESS OF SHEAR FRACTURING IN COMPRESSION......Page 193
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 194
10-1. TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING STRESS IN THE EARTH......Page 195
FIGURE 10-1. STRESS RELIEF TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING STRESS......Page 196
STRESS ORIENTATIONS FROM EARTHQUAKE FIRST-MOTION STUDIES......Page 197
NONTECTONIC HORIZONTAL NOMAL STRESS......Page 198
TECTONIC HORIZONTAL NORMAL STRESS......Page 199
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTIONS OF STRESS......Page 200
FIGURE 10-6. REGIONAL STRESS FIELD DETERMINATIONS......Page 201
FIGURE 10-7. BENDING OF THE ELASTIC PART OF THE LITHOSPHERE IN RESPONSE TO THE LOADING OF A CONTINENTAL ICE SHEET CAUSES DEVIATORIC COMPRESSION ON THE CONCAVE SIDE OF THE BENDS AND DEVIATORIC TENSION ON THE CONVEX SIDES......Page 202
JOINT FORMATION DURING BURIAL......Page 203
TECTONIC JOINTS......Page 204
THE ORIGIN OF SHEET JOINTS......Page 205
FIGURE 10-1-1. STRESS HISTORIES DURING BURIAL AS A SEDIMENT......Page 206
FIGURE 10-9. CHANGES IN PRESSURE - STRESS OR TEMPRATURE CAN INDUCE STRESS IN A LAYER IMBEDDED IN A ROCK OF A DIFFERENT TYPE IF THE COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION OR ELASTIC COSTANTS DIFFER BETWEEN LAYER AND MATRIX......Page 207
FIGUE 10-10. PRINCIPAL STRESSES INFERRED FROM FRACTURE ORIENTATIONS......Page 208
10-8. FRACTURES ASSOCIATED WITH FOLDS......Page 209
FIGURE 10-12. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN A BAR OF GELATIN UNDERGOING BUCKLING BY LAYER-PARALLEL COMPRESSION......Page 210
ANDERSONS THEORY OF FAULTING......Page 211
FAULTING AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS WITH DEPTH......Page 212
FIGURE 10-15. FREE-BODY DIAGRAM FOR A COMPRESSIVE TECTONIC STRESS ADDED TO THE STANDARD STATE STRESS AND INCLUDING SHEAR STRESSES ON THE BOUNDARIES OF THE BLOCK......Page 213
FIGURE 10-16. FREE-BODY DIAGRAM FOR A BLOCK......Page 214
10-11. THE MECHANICS OF LARGE OVERTHRUSTS......Page 215
DUCTILE FLOW......Page 216
BOX 10-2. SIMPLE MODEL OF A THRUST SHEET......Page 217
FIGURE 10-2-2. PERMISSIBLE GEOMETRY OF THRUST SHEETS AS A FUNCTION OF THE FLUID PRESSURE RATIO......Page 218
TABLE 10-2-1. RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FRACTURE ANGLE......Page 219
FIGURE 10-18. MODELS OF GRAVITATIONALLY DRYVEN THRUST SHEETS......Page 220
FIGURE 10-19. THE TAPERED WEDGE MODEL OF THRUST SHEETS IS SUPPORTTED BY OBSERVATIONS OF THE GEOMETRY OF ACTIVE CONTINENTAL FOLD......Page 221
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 222
PART III  (DUCTILE DEFORMATION)......Page 224
CHAPTER 11 (THE DESCRIPTION OF FOLDS)......Page 226
FIGURE 11-1. SCALES OF FOLDING IN DUCTILE METAMORPHIC ROCKS......Page 227
FIGURE 11-2. FOLDS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF FOLD AND THRUST BELTS......Page 228
FIGURE 11-3. FEATURES OF A FOLD TRAIN IN A SINGLE ASURFACE......Page 229
FIGURE 11-5. CREST AND TROUGH OF A FOLD......Page 230
PARTS OF FOLDED LAYERS AND MULTILAYERS......Page 231
FIGURE 11-9. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FOLDS......Page 232
THE ATTITUDE OF FOLDS......Page 233
FIGURE 11-12. THE TERMINOLOGY FOR DESCRIBING FOLD ATTITUDE AS DEFINED BY THE PLURGE OF THE HINGE AND THE DIP OF THE AXIAL SURFACE......Page 234
CYLINDRICITY......Page 235
FIGURE 11-14. THE FOLDING ANGLE THE INTERLIMB ANGLE AND THE SYMMETRY OF FOLDS......Page 236
TABLE 11-4. BLUNTNESS OF FOLDS......Page 237
FIGURE 11-16. VARIATION OF POSSIBLE FOLD STYLES ON PLANES OF CONSTANT Φ THROUGH FOLD STYLE SPACE......Page 238
FIGURE 11-17. PLOT OF THE LOGARITHM OF ASPECT RATIO VS......Page 239
FIGURE 11-19. RAMSAYS CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDED LAYERS......Page 240
TABLE 11-5. STYLE OF A FOLDED LAYER......Page 241
FIGURE 11-22. PROFILES OF MULTILAYER FOLDS SHOWING DIP ISOGON PATTERNS IN SUCCESSIVE LAYERS......Page 242
11-4. THE ORDER OF FOLDS......Page 243
PARALLEL FOLDS......Page 244
FIGURE 11-25.A - CHEVRON FOLDS-B :KINK FOLDS -C: CHEVRON FOLDS IN A SEQUENCE OF ALTERNATING LAYERS SUCH AS SANDSTONE AND SHALE......Page 245
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 246
CHAPTER 12 (KINEMATIC MODELS OF FOLDING)......Page 247
12-1. FLEXURAL FOLDING OF A LAYER......Page 248
FIGURE 12-4. MONOCLINAL FOLDS DEVELOPED BY BENDING......Page 249
12-2. PASSIVE-SHEAR FOLDING OF A LAYER......Page 250
12-3. VOLUME-LOSS FOLDING OF A LAYER......Page 251
12-4. HOMOGENEOUS FLATTENING OF FOLD IN A LAYER......Page 252
FIGURE 12-12. INTENSIFICATION OF FOLDING BY HOMOGENEOUS FLATTENING NORMAL TO THE AXIAL SURFACE......Page 253
FIGURE 12-15. THE DEPENDENCE OF THE KINEMATIC MODEL OF MULTILAYER FOLDING ON THE MEAN COMPERENCE OF THE MULTILAYER AND ON THE CONTRAST IN COMPETENCE BETWEEN ADJACENT LAYERS......Page 254
FIGURE 12-19. GEOMETRY OF KINK BAND ILLUSTRETING TERMINOLOGY......Page 257
CHEVRON FOLDS......Page 258
KINK OR CHEVRON FOLDING OF LAYERD SEQUENCES......Page 259
12-7. FAULT-BEND AND FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLDING OF A MULTILAYER......Page 260
FIGURE 12-25. DEVELOPMENT OF A FAULT-BEND AT A SIMPLE FAULT RAMP......Page 261
FIGURE 12-27. DELOPMENT OF A FAULT-PROPAGATION FOLD ABOVE THE TIP A PROPAGATING THRUST FAULT......Page 262
FIGURE 12-16. FLEXURAL-SLIP FOLDING IN A MULTILAYER......Page 255
FIGURE 12-18. FOLDING OF A MULTILAYER IN WHICH THE INCOMPETENT LAYERS ARE MUCH THICKER THAN THE COMPETENT LAYERS......Page 256
FIGURE 12-28. HANSEN' S METHOD FOR SLIP LINE DETERMINATION IN FOLDED LAYERS SUBPARALLEL TO THE SHEAR PLANE......Page 263
FIGURE 12-29. GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF A REFOLDED FOLD......Page 264
FIGURE 12-30. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF TWO GENERATIONS OF SUPERPOSED FLEXURE FOLDS OF COMPARABLE SCALE......Page 265
FIGURE 12-31. FOLD INTERFERENCE PATTERNS......Page 266
INTERPRETATIONS......Page 267
FIGURE 12-33. COMMON FORMS OF SALT INTRUSIONS......Page 268
FIGURE 12-34. INTERNAL STRACTURE OF SALT DOMES......Page 269
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 270
CHAPTER 13 (FOLIATIONS AND LINEATIONS IN DEFORMED ROCKS)......Page 271
13-1. COMPOSITIONAL FOLIATIONS......Page 272
FIGURE 13-3. SKETCHES SHOWING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF DISJUNCTIVE FOLIATION......Page 273
FIGURE 13-5. STYLOLITIC FOLIATION......Page 274
13-3. CRENULATION FOLIATIONS......Page 275
FIGURE 13-10. DISCRETE CRENULATION CLEAVAGE IN A SLATE......Page 276
FIGURE 13-11. SCANING ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS OF CONTINOUS FINE FOLIATIONS......Page 277
13-5. THE RELATIONSHIP OF FOLIATION TO OTHER STRUCTURES......Page 278
FIGURE 13-14. THE USE OF BEDDING-FOLIATION RELATIONSHIPS TO DEDUCE THE LOCATION OF FOLD CLOSURES AND AXIAL SURFACES......Page 279
FIGURE 13-15. USE OF BEDDING FOLIATION RELATIONSHIPS TO DEDUCE THE STRATIGRAPHIC UP DIRECTION IN SIMPLY FOLDED LAYERS......Page 280
FIGURE 13-16. FOLIATION IN AN S-C TECTONIC......Page 281
13-6. SPECIAL TYPES OF FOLIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE......Page 282
DISCRETE LINEATIONS......Page 283
FIGURE 13-19. DISCRETE LINEATIONS......Page 284
FIGURE 13-21. BOUDINS......Page 285
FIGURE 13-22. MULLIONS......Page 286
FIGURE 13-24. MINERAL CLUSTER LINEATION IN A QUARTZ-FELDESPAR-BIOTITE SCHIST DEFINED BY CLONGATE CONCENTRATION OF QUARTZ AND FELDESPAR AND BIOTITE......Page 287
FIGURE 13-26. MINERAL FIBER LINEATIONS......Page 288
LINEATIONS  AND FOLDS......Page 289
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 290
14-1. SHORTENING AND LENGHENING......Page 291
FIGURE 14-1. TYPES OF HOMOGENEOUS DEFORMATION......Page 292
FIGURE 14-3. FORMATION OF BOUDINS......Page 293
14-3. SOLUTION-DIFFUSION-AND PRECIPITATION......Page 294
FIGURE 14-5. ROTATION OF PASSIVE PARTICLES IN A DUCTILE MATRIX......Page 295
14-5. STEADY-STATE FOLIATIONS......Page 296
MINERAL FIBER AND SLICKENFIBER LINEATIONS......Page 297
FIGURE 14-8. FIBROUS OVERGROWTHS OR PRESSURE SHADOWS......Page 298
FIGURE 14-9. CRACK-SEAL GROWTH FORMING A MINERAL FIBER LINEATION OF STRETCHED CRYSTALS IN A VEIN......Page 299
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 300
CHAPTER 15 (GEOMETRY OF HOMOGENEOUS STRAIN)......Page 301
15-1. MEASURES OF STRAIN......Page 302
BOX 15-1. A MORE QUANTITATIVE VIEW OF STRAIN......Page 303
FIGURE 15-1-2. THE GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF INFINITESIMAL STRAIN FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRAIN......Page 304
THE STRAIN ELLIPSOID......Page 306
FIGURE 15-3. THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE STRETCH -EXTENSION-AND SHEAR STRAIN TO THE GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIN ELLIPSE......Page 307
FIGURE 15-4. GEOMETRIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STRAIN TENSOR COMPONENTS IN THREE DIMENSIONS......Page 308
FIGURE 15-5. REPRESENTATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STRETCHES AND THE PRINCIPAL EXTENSIONS ON THE STRAIN ELLIPSE FORMED FROM THE UNIT CIRCLE......Page 309
FIGURE 15-6. DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE STRAIN ELLIPSE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE STRAIN ELLIPSE......Page 310
FIGURE 15-8. STRUCTURES THAT COULD DEVELOP IN A COMPETENT  LAYER IMBEDDED IN AN INCOMPETENT MATRIX DEPEND ON THE ORIENTATION OF THE LAYER  RELATIVE TO THE PRINCIPAL STRETCHES AND ON THE VALUE OF S2......Page 311
FIGURE 15-9. PURE SHEAR : A CONSTANT-VOLUME PLANE STRAIN IN WHICH THE PRINCIPAL AXES OF STRAIN ARE NOT ROTATED BY THE DEFORMATION......Page 312
15-4. PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION......Page 313
FIGURE 15-13. PARTICLE MOTIONS DURING TWO PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATIONS......Page 314
FIGURE 15-14. STATES OF STRAIN DURING A STEADY PROGRESSIVE PURE SHEAR......Page 315
FIGURE 15-15. STATES OF STRAIN DURING STEADY PROGRESSIVE SIMPLE SHEAR......Page 316
15-5. PROGRESSIVE STRETCH OF MATERIAL LINES......Page 317
FIGURE 15-17. THE HISTORIES OF PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION FOR COMPTENT LAYERS ORIENTED WITHIN THE DIFFERENT SECTORS SHOWN IN FIGURE 15-16C......Page 318
15-6. THE REPRESENTATION OF STRAIN STATES AND STRAIN HISTORIES......Page 319
FIGURE 15-19. FLINN DIAGRAM SHOWING THE LINES (K=0  K=1  K=&) AND THE TWO FIELDS(0FIGURE 15-21. DECK-OF-CARDS MODEL OF PASSIVE-SHEAR FOLDING ON EACH CARD THE ARCS OF THE UNDEFORMD CIRCLE ARE DISPLACED SO AS TO APPROXIMATE THE SHAPE OF THE STRAIN ELLIPSE......Page 321
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 322
LAYER BENDING BY ORTHOGONAL FLEXURE......Page 323
LAYER BUCKLING BY FLEXURAL FOLDING......Page 324
FIGURE 16-1. MODELS OF BENDING BY FLEXURAL FOLDING AND THE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN THE PROFILE PLANES AND ON THE FOLDED SURFACE......Page 325
FIGURE 16-2. MODELS  OF BUCKLING BY FLEXURAL FOLDING AND THE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION IN THE PROFILE PLANES AND ON THE FOLDED SURFACES......Page 326
FIGURE 16-3. PASSIVE-SHEAR FOLDING......Page 327
FIGURE 16-4. HOMOGENEOUS FLATTENING NORMAL TO THE AXIAL SURFACE OF AN ORTHOGONAL FLEXURE  FOLD FORMED IN A LAYER BY BENDING......Page 328
STRAIN IN MULTILAYER FOLDS......Page 329
PASSIVE REORIENTATION DURING DEFORMATION......Page 330
SOLUTION AND PRECIPITATION......Page 331
PREFERRED ORIENTATION FORMED BY ROTATION......Page 332
DISJUNCTIVE FOLIATIONS......Page 333
FIGURE 16-7. DEVELOPMENT OF DISJUNCTIVE FOLIATION IN LIMSTONE CORRELATED WITH THE AMOUNT OF SHORTENING STRAIN ACCOMMODATED BY SOLUTION......Page 334
CRENULATION FOLIATIONS......Page 335
FIGURE 16-10. FORMATION OF AN ASYMMETRIC CRENULATION FOLIATION S2 BY BUCKLING OF S1......Page 336
FIGURE 16-11. PRODUCTION OF AN ASYMMETRIC CRENULATION FOLIATION S2 BY THE FORMATION OF SHEAR BANDS CROSSING A PREEXISTING FOLIATION  WHICH IS ORIENTED AT A LOW ANGLE TO THE MAXIMUM SHORTENING AXIS OF THE INCREMENTAL STRAIN ELLIPSE......Page 337
FIGURE 16-12. PRODUCTION OF AN ASYMMETRIC EXTENSIONAL CRENULATION FOLIATION S2 BY FORMATION OF SHEAR BANDS......Page 338
16-6. FOLIATIONS AND SHEAR PLANES......Page 339
FIGURE 16-15. SHEAR PARALLEL TO THE PLANE OF FLATTENING  OF THE FINITE STRAIN ELLIPSE CAUSES  THE ELLIPSE  TO CHANGE SHAPE SO THAT THE SHEAR PLANE IS NO LONGER PARALLEL TO THE PLANE OF FLATTENING......Page 341
FIGURE 16-17. PHTOGRAPH SHOWING VARIOUS STAGE IN THE PROGRESSIVE SOLUTION OF LIMBS OF PTYGMATIC FOLDS......Page 342
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 343
17-1. TECHNIQUES OF MEASURING STRAIN......Page 345
DEFORMED LINEA OBJECTS......Page 346
THE NEAREST-NEIGHBOR CENTER-TO-CENTER TECHNIQUE......Page 347
SHEARED -INITIALLY ORTKOGONAL PARIS OF LINES......Page 348
FIGURE 17-5. THE USE OF MEASUREMENTS OF SHEAR STRAIN TO DETERMINE THE ELLIPTICITY AND ORIENTATION OF THE STRAIN ELLIPSE......Page 349
THE Rf - Ф METHOD......Page 350
FIGURE 17-6. THE EFFECTS OF INITIAL ORIENTATION Ф OF ELLIPTICAL OBJECTS IN THE UNDEFORMED STATE ON THE FINAL ELLIPTICITY Rf AND FINAL ORIENTATION Ф OF THE OBJECTS IN THE DEFORMED STATE......Page 351
FIGURE 17-7. THE EFFECT OF VARYING INITIAL ELLIPTICITY Rf OF UNDEFORMED OBJECTS THAT ALL HAVE THE SAME INITIAL ORIENTATION 0......Page 353
FIGURE 17-8. INTERPRETATION OF Rf - Ф PLOT FOR OOIDS IN A DEFORMED OOLITE......Page 354
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN IN THE MARTINSBURG SHALE......Page 355
A STUDY OF ORTHOGONAL FLEXURE......Page 356
FIGURE 17-10. THE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION DETERMINED ON A NATURAL FOLD IN A LIMESTONE PEBBLE CONGLOMERATE COMPARED WITH THE THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION OF STRAIN FOR DIFFERENTIDEALIZED MODELES OF FOLDING......Page 357
FIGURE 17-11. THE SOUTH MOUNTAIN FOLD......Page 358
FIGURE 17-12. CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MICA ORIENTATIONS IN A CLASS 1C FOLD AND ORIENTATIONS OF S1 IN GEOMETRICALLY COMPARABLE THEORETICAL FOLDS......Page 359
FIGURE 17-13. CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE MICA ORIENTATIONS IN A CLASS 2 FOLD AND THE S1 ORIENTATIONS IN THEORETICAL FOLDS OF COMPARABLE GEOMETRY......Page 360
17-4. STRAIN IN SHEAR ZONES......Page 361
FIGURE 17-14. DEFORMATION IN THE CAMBRIAN SLATE BELT IN WALES......Page 362
FIGURE 17-16. DEFORMATION FEATURES OF DUCTILE SHEAR ZONES......Page 363
FIGURE 17-17. DISPLACEMENT FIELDS SUGGESTING DUCTILE SHEAR ZONES......Page 364
17-5. DEFORMATION HISTORY......Page 365
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 366
PART IV  (RHEOLOGY)......Page 368
ELASTIC MATERIALS......Page 370
VISCOUS MATERIALS......Page 371
FIGURE 18-3. CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIAL......Page 372
OTHER CONTINUUN MODELS FOR MATERIAL BEHAVOIR......Page 373
FIGURE 18-5. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ELASTIC-PLASTIC OR  PRANDTL MATERIAL......Page 375
18-2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF DUCTILE FLOW......Page 376
18-3. EXPERIMENTS ON CATACLASTIC FLOW AND FRICTION......Page 378
BOX 18-2. EXPRIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE MATERIAL CONSTANTS IN THE HIGH-TEMPERATURE GREEP EQUATION......Page 379
FIGURE 18-2-3. THE NATURAL LOGARITHM OF THE STEADY-STATE DIFFERENTIAL STRESS PLOTTED AGAINST THE PRESSURE FOR DUNITE......Page 380
FIGURE 18-9. EXPRIMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CATACLASTIC DEFORMATION OF FAULT GOUGE......Page 381
18-4. STEADY-STATE CREEP......Page 382
FIGURE 18-11. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON STEADY-STATE CREEP STRESS FOR COARSE-GRAINED DUNITE......Page 383
THE HIGH-STRESS REGIME : THE EXPONENTIAL CREEP LAW......Page 384
EFFECT OF PRESSURE......Page 385
EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE......Page 386
EFFECT OF THE CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT......Page 387
18-6. APPLICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RHEOLOGY TO NATURAL DEFORMATION......Page 388
VISCOUS BEHAVIOR......Page 389
POWER LAW BEHAVIOR......Page 390
FIGURE 18-19. VARIATION OF POWER-LAW CREEP RHEOLOGY WUTH DEPTH FOR VARIOUS ROCK TYPES LISTED IN TABLE 18-1......Page 392
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 393
CHAPTER 19 (MICROSCOPIC ASPECTS OF DUCTILE DEFORMATION)(MECHANISMS AND FABRICS)......Page 395
FIGURE 19-1. DFORMATION MECHANISM MAPS......Page 396
CATACLASTIC FLOW......Page 397
19-2. TWIN GLIDING......Page 398
19-3. DIFFUSION AND SOLUTION CREEP......Page 399
FIGURE 19-6. NABARRO-HERRING CREEP CAUSED BY VOLUM DIFFUSION OF VACANCIES IN RESPONE TO A UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS......Page 400
SOLUTION CREEP......Page 401
SUPERPLASTIC CREEP......Page 403
FIGURE 19-9. THE THEORETICAL PROCESS OF SLIP IN A PERFECT CRYSTAL BY THE SLIDING OF AN ENTIRE LATTICE PLANE ONE LATTICE DISTANCE OVER THE ADJACENT LATTICE PLANE......Page 404
FIGURE 19-10. THE GEOMETRY OF EDGE DISLOCATIONS AND SCREW DISLOCATIONS......Page 405
FIGURE 19-12. THE NATURE OF A CURVED DISLOCATION......Page 406
THE MOTION OF DISLOCATIONS......Page 407
FIGURE 19-14. THE GLIDE OF A DISLOCATION THROUGH THE CRYSTAL LATTICE IS ACCOMPLISHED BY SWITCHING THE BANDS OF NEIGHBORING ATOMS ACROSS THE GLIDE PLANE......Page 408
FIGURE 19-15. CLIMB OF AN EDGE DISLOCATION......Page 409
FIGURE 19-17. DISLOCATION INTERACTIONS......Page 410
FIGURE 19-18. THE OPERATION OF A FRANK-READ SOURCE FOR DISLOCATION GENERATION......Page 411
DISLOCATION GLIDE......Page 412
DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION......Page 413
FIGURE19-19. MECHANISMS OF DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION IN QUARTZ......Page 414
EVALUATION OF RELATIVE CREEP RATES......Page 415
19-6. MICROSTRUCTURAL FABRICS ASSOCIATED WITH DISLOCATION CREEP......Page 416
FIGURE19-23. RIBBON QUARTZ IN A STRONGLY DEFORMED QUARTZITE......Page 417
FORMATION OF A CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PREFERRED ORIENTATION......Page 418
BOX 19-2. DETERMINING THE ORIENTATION AND MAGNITUDE OF PALEOSTRESSES IN DEFORMED ROCKS......Page 419
FIGURE 19-2-1. PRINCIPAL STRESS AXES IN A MINOR  FOLD DEDUCED FROM QUARTZ DEFORMATION LAMELLAEA -B -AND C......Page 420
FIGURE 19-25. THE PROCESS OF FORMATION OF A PREFERRED CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC ORIENTATION BY DISLOCATION  GLIDE......Page 423
OLIVINE FABRICS......Page 424
FIGURE 19-28. OLIVINE FABRICS FROM NATURALLY DEFORMED DUNITES......Page 425
FIGURE 19-29. CRYSTAL FACES AND DIRECTIONS IN QUARTZ SHOWING THE MOST IMPORTANT SLIP PLANES AND SLIP DIRECTIONS......Page 426
FIGURE 19-30.COMMON QUARTZ FABRICS FOR COAXIALLY DEFORMED ROCKS......Page 427
FIGURE 19-31. COMMON QUARTZ FABRICS ASSOCIATEDWITH NONCOAXIAL DEFORMATION......Page 429
FIGURE 19-32. SLIP SYSTEM IN QUARTZ ASSOCIATED WITH PARTICULAR AXIS MAXIMA ASSUMINGTHAT THE  ACTIVE SLIP PLANE MUST BE PARALLEL TO THE SHEAR PLANE AND THAT A IS THE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SLIP DIRECTION......Page 430
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 431
CHAPTER 20 (QUANTITATIVE AND SCALE MODELS OF ROCK DEFORMATION)......Page 432
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS......Page 433
CAUSE AND EFFECT......Page 434
20-2. ANALYTIC SOLUTION FOR THE VISCOUS BUCKLING OF A COMPETENT LAYER IN AN INCOMPETENT MATRIX......Page 435
FIGURE 20-1. MDEL FOR THE THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FOLDING OF VISCOUS MATERIALS......Page 436
FIGURE 20-3. FOLDING ELASTIC RUBBER STRIPS IMBEDDED IN A SOFTER ELASTIC GELATIN MATRIX......Page 437
FIGURE 20-4. MODEL FOR STUYING NUMERICALLY THE FOLDING OF A VISCOUS LAYER IN A LESS VISCOUS MEDIUM......Page 438
FIGURE 20-5. NUMERICAL MODELING OF PROGRESSIVE FOLDING OF A LAYER IN A  MATRIX......Page 439
FIGURE 20-7.ORIENTATION OF THE DIRECTIONS OF MINIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRESS б3 IN THE FOLD SHOWN IN THE LAST FRAME OF FIGURE 20.5......Page 440
FIGURE 20-9. A PLOT OF THE RATIO OF THE EQUIVALENT VISCOSITY OF WET QUARTZITE TO THAT OF MARBLE(Nqtz/Nmbl)......Page 441
FIGURE 20-10. NUMERICALLY CALCULATED FOLDS DEFORMING WITH POWER-LAW RHEOLOGICS FOR A WET QUARTZITE LAYER IN A MARBLE MATRIX AT 375 C......Page 442
FIGURE 20-12. POWER-LAW RHEOLOGY FOLDING FOR A QUARTZITE LAYER IN A MARBLE MATRIX......Page 443
COMPARISON WITH KINEMATIC MODELS......Page 444
FIGURE 20-13. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTIC SLIP-LINE FIELDS......Page 445
20-5. THE THEORY OF SCALE MODELS......Page 446
20-6. SCALE MODELS OF FOLDING......Page 447
FIGURE 20-15. CROSS SECTION THROUGH SOME OF THE JURA FOLDS SHOWING THE FOLD STYLE THE UNDERLYINING DECOLLEMENT AND THE RALATIONSHIP TO THE FRONT OF THE ALPS......Page 448
FIGURE 20-16. SCALE MODEL OF THE FORMATION OF THE JURA MOUNTAINS CREATED BY USING INTERLAYERED STITCHING WAX AND GREASE......Page 449
20-7. SCALE MODELS OF GRAVITY-DRIVEN DEFORMATION......Page 450
FIGURE 20-18. MODEL OF DEFORMATION IN THE BRITTLE CRUST MADE BY USING LAYERED DRY SAND DEFORMED TO 50 PERCENT EXTENSION BY UNIFORM STRETCHING OF A RUBBER SUBSTRATE......Page 451
FIGURE 20-21. CENTRIFUGED SCALE MODELS OF AN OROGENIC ZONE SHOWING THE CONSEQUENCES OF GRAVITY DRIVEN DEFORMATION......Page 452
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 453
PART VI  (TECTONICS)......Page 454
21-1. OCEAN BASINS......Page 455
FIGURE21-1.GENERALIZED WORLD MAP SHOWING MAJOR FEATURES OF CONTINENTAL CRUST AS WELL AS AGE OF OCEANIC CRUST......Page 456
FEATURES  OF OCEANIC PLATE MARGINS......Page 457
FIGURE 21-5. BLOCK DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING SCHEMATICALLY A CONSERVATIVE OR TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY IN OCEANIC CRUST OFFSETTING A DIVERGENT MARGIN......Page 458
21-2. STRUCTURE OF CONTINENTAL CRUST......Page 459
FIGUER 21-8. GENERALIZED CRUSTAL MODEL SHOWING LATERAL AND VERTICAL INHOMOGENEITIES TO ACCOUNT FOR OBSERVATIONS IN DEEPLY ERODED REGIONS AND FOR OBSERVED SEISMIC VARIATIONS......Page 460
ARCHEAN TERRANES......Page 461
FIGURE 21-9. GENERALIZED MAP OF A TYPICAL ARCHEAN CRUSTAL REGION......Page 462
PROTEROZOIC TERRANES......Page 463
FIGURE 21-11. WORLD MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAFIC-ULTRAMAFIC STRATIFORM COMPLECES AND OF ANORTHOSITE COMPLEXES ALL OF PROTEROZOIC AGE......Page 464
CONTINENTAL PLATFORMS......Page 465
FIGURE 21-13. AULACOGENS......Page 466
OROGENIC BELTS......Page 467
FIGURE 21-15. MAP OF THE WORLD......Page 468
FIGURE 21-16. WORLD MAP SHOWING PRESENT ATLANTIC-STYLE ANDEAN JAPAN-SEA-STYLE AND CALIFORNIA-STYLE CONTINENTAL MARGINS......Page 469
FIGURE 21-17. GENERALIZED BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A PASSIVE OR ATLANTIC-STYLECONTINENTAL MARGIN......Page 470
FIGURE 21-19. GENERALIZED MAP AND CROSS SECTION ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CALIFORNIA-STYLE OR TRANSFORM CONTINENTAL MARGIN......Page 471
ADDITIONAL READINGS......Page 472
CHAPTER 22 (ANATOMY OF OROGENIC BELTS)......Page 473
22-1. THE OUTER FOREDEEP FORELAND BASIN......Page 474
FIGURE 22-2. GENERALIZED MAPS OF THREE OROGENIC BELTS AT THE SAME SCALE SHOWING MAJOR TECTONIC FEATURES TO BE COMPARED WITH MODEL CEOSS SECTION......Page 475
22-2. THE FORELAND FOLD AND THRUST BELT......Page 476
FIGURE 22-5. EXTERNAL MASSIFS OF THE WESTERN ALPS RESULTING FROM INVOLVEMENT OF BASEMENT ROCK IN FOLD AND THRUST BELT......Page 478
FIGURE 22-6. THE BELT OF WALES AN EXAMPLE OF AN OROGENIC SLATE BELT......Page 479
FIGURE 22-7. FEATURES OF OPHIOLITES......Page 480
VOLCANIC AND IGENOUS ROCKS AND ASSOCIATED SEDIMENTS......Page 481
FIGURE 22-9. GENERALIZED MAP OF THE PENNINTE ZONE OF THE AIPS......Page 482
GNEISSIC TERRANES WITH ABUNDANT ULTRAMAFIC BODIES......Page 483
FIGURE 22-11. A TYPICAL MULTIPLY FOLDED EUGEOCLINAL CORE ZONE THE NORTHERN APPALACHIANS IN VERMONT......Page 484
FIGURE 22-13. CONCORDANT ULTRAMAFIC BODIES IN THE CRYSTALLINE CORE ZONE OF THE SOUTHERN  APPALACHIANS......Page 485
FIGURE 22-14. BARTHOLITHS IN THE NORTH AMERICAN CORDILLERA......Page 486
22-4. THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF CORE ZONES......Page 487
FIGURE 22-16. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THRUST BELTS BACK FOLDS AND SUBDUCTION......Page 488
22-5. HIGH-ANGLE FAULT ZONES......Page 489
FIGURE 22-18. METAMORPHISM IN MOUNTAIN BELTS......Page 490
FIGURE 22-19. GENERALIZED METAMORPHIC MAP OF THE ALPS......Page 491
FIGURE 22-20. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM......Page 492
FIGURE 22-22. POSSIBLE ORIGIN OF INVERTED  METAMORPHIC ZONES......Page 493
22-7. MINOR STRUCTURES AND STRAIN IN THE INTERPRETATION OF OROGENIC ZONES......Page 494
KINEMATIC INTERPRETATION OF MINERAL FIBERS......Page 495
FIGURE 22-26. DISTRIBUTION OF STRAIN IN  THE MORCLES NAPPE IN THE ALPS OF WESTERN SWITZERLAND......Page 496
22-8. MODELS OF OROGENIC DEFORMATION......Page 497
FIGURE 22-28. STREAM LINES FOR DIFFERENT FLOW GEOMETRICS......Page 498
FIGURE 22-29. IDEALIZED DISTRIBUTIONS OF S1 IN THRUST NAPPES DEFORMED ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF EMPLACEMENT......Page 499
PLATE TECTONIC MODELS OF FORELAND FOLD AND THRUST BELTS......Page 500
22-9. THE WILSON CYCLE AND PLATE TECTONICS......Page 501
FIGURE 22-31. DIAGRAMMATIV SKETCH MAPS AND CROSS  SECTIONS ILLUSTRATING POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENT OF A PLATE TECTONIC WILSON CYCLE TO ACCOUNT FOR TRADITIONAL OBSERVATIONS OF MOUNTAIN  BELTS......Page 502
FIGURE 22-32. ANALYSIS OF EXOTIC TERRANES......Page 504
ADDITIONAL READING......Page 505
EPILOGUE......Page 506
SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS......Page 508
INDEX......Page 515