Psychology: Themes & Variations

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Content......Page 26
CHAPTER 1 The Evolution of Psychology......Page 47
A New Science Is Born......Page 50
The Battle of the “Schools” Begins: Structuralism Versus Functionalism......Page 51
Freud Brings the Unconscious into the Picture......Page 53
Watson Alters Psychology’s Course as Behaviorism Makes Its Debut......Page 54
Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviorism Flourishes......Page 55
The Humanists Revolt......Page 56
Psychology Comes of Age as a Profession......Page 57
Psychology Returns to Its Roots: Renewed Interest in Cognition and Physiology......Page 58
Psychology Adapts: The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology......Page 59
Psychology Moves in a Positive Direction......Page 60
Illustrated Overview of Psychology’s History......Page 61
Psychology Today: Vigorous and Diversi.ed......Page 63
Professional Specialties in Psychology......Page 64
Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study......Page 66
Themes Related to Psychology’s Subject Matter......Page 68
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Improving Academic Performance......Page 70
Improving Your Reading......Page 71
Getting More out of Lectures......Page 72
Improving Test-Taking Strategies......Page 73
The Need to Teach Critical Thinking......Page 75
An Example......Page 76
Review......Page 77
Practice Test......Page 78
CHAPTER 2 The Research Enterprise in Psychology......Page 79
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise......Page 80
Steps in a Scientific Investigation......Page 81
Advantages of the Scientific Approach......Page 84
Experimental and Control Groups......Page 85
Extraneous Variables......Page 86
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research......Page 87
The Concept of Correlation......Page 89
Naturalistic Observation......Page 91
Case Studies......Page 92
Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research......Page 93
Placebo Effects......Page 95
Experimenter Bias......Page 96
The Question of Deception......Page 98
The Question of Animal Research......Page 99
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 100
Finding Journal Articles......Page 101
Reading Journal Articles......Page 104
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • The Perils of Anecdotal Evidence: “I Have A Friend Who . . . “......Page 105
Review......Page 107
Practice Test......Page 108
CHAPTER 3 The Biological Bases of Behavior......Page 109
Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware......Page 110
The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information......Page 112
The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet......Page 113
Neurotransmitters and Behavior......Page 115
Organization of the Nervous System......Page 117
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 118
The Central Nervous System......Page 119
Looking Inside the Brain: Research Methods......Page 120
The Hindbrain......Page 122
The Forebrain......Page 123
The Plasticity of the Brain......Page 125
Bisecting the Brain: Split-Brain Research......Page 127
Hemispheric Specialization in the Intact Brain......Page 129
The Endocrine System: Another Way to Communicate......Page 130
Detecting Hereditary In.uence: Research Methods......Page 131
The Interplay of Heredity and Environment......Page 133
Darwin’s Insights......Page 134
Behaviors as Adaptive Traits......Page 135
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 136
Cerebral Specialization and Cognitive Processes......Page 137
Complexities and Qualifications......Page 138
The Tendency to Overextrapolate......Page 139
Review......Page 141
Practice Test......Page 142
CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception......Page 143
The Stimulus: Light......Page 145
The Eye: A Living Optical Instrument......Page 146
The Retina: The Brain’s Envoy in the Eye......Page 147
Vision and the Brain......Page 150
Viewing the World in Color......Page 152
Perceiving Forms, Patterns, and Objects......Page 155
Perceiving Depth or Distance......Page 161
The Power of Misleading Cues: Visual Illusions......Page 164
Human Hearing Capacities......Page 166
Sensory Processing in the Ear......Page 167
Auditory Perception: Theories of Hearing......Page 168
Taste: The Gustatory System......Page 169
Smell: The Olfactory System......Page 171
Touch: Sensory Systems in the Skin......Page 172
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 174
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Appreciating Art and Illusion......Page 175
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Recognizing Contrast Effects: It’s All Relative......Page 179
Review......Page 181
Practice Test......Page 182
CHAPTER 5 Variations in Consciousness......Page 183
Consciousness and Brain Activity......Page 185
Ignoring Circadian Rhythms......Page 186
Realigning Circadian Rhythms......Page 187
Cycling Through the Stages of Sleep......Page 188
Age, Culture, and Sleep......Page 190
Doing Without: Sleep Deprivation......Page 193
Problems in the Night: Sleep Disorders......Page 194
The Nature and Contents of Dreams......Page 196
Theories of Dreaming......Page 198
Hypnosis: Altered Consciousness or Role Playing?......Page 199
Hypnotic Induction and Phenomena......Page 200
Theories of Hypnosis......Page 201
Meditation: Pure Consciousness or Relaxation?......Page 202
Principal Abused Drugs and Their Effects......Page 203
Factors Influencing Drug Effects......Page 205
Mechanisms of Drug Action......Page 206
Drugs and Health......Page 207
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 208
Common Questions About Sleep......Page 209
Common Questions About Dreams......Page 210
The Power to Make Definitions......Page 211
Definitions, Labels, and Circular Reasoning......Page 212
Review......Page 213
Practice Test......Page 214
CHAPTER 6 Learning......Page 215
Terminology and Procedures......Page 217
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life......Page 219
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning......Page 221
Operant Conditioning......Page 224
Terminology and Procedures......Page 225
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning......Page 226
Reinforcement: Consequences That Strengthen Responses......Page 229
Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 230
Positive Reinforcement Versus Negative Reinforcement......Page 232
Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses......Page 233
Recognizing Biological Constraints on Conditioning......Page 236
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning......Page 237
Basic Processes......Page 239
Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy......Page 240
Illustrated Overview of Three Types of Learning......Page 241
Specifying Your Target Behavior......Page 244
Designing Your Program......Page 245
Executing and Evaluating Your Program......Page 246
Classical Conditioning in Advertising......Page 247
Becoming More Aware of Classical Conditioning Processes......Page 248
Review......Page 249
Practice Test......Page 250
CHAPTER 7 Human Memory......Page 251
The Role of Attention......Page 253
Enriching Encoding......Page 254
Sensory Memory......Page 256
Short-Term Memory......Page 257
Long-Term Memory......Page 258
How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory?......Page 259
Using Cues to Aid Retrieval......Page 261
Reconstructing Memories......Page 262
How Quickly We Forget: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve......Page 263
Measures of Forgetting......Page 264
Why We Forget......Page 265
The Repressed Memories Controversy......Page 267
The Anatomy of Memory......Page 270
The Neural Circuitry and Biochemistry of Memory......Page 271
Semantic Versus Episodic Memory......Page 272
Prospective Versus Retrospective Memory......Page 273
Engage in Adequate Rehearsal......Page 274
Enrich Encoding with Verbal Mnemonics......Page 275
Enrich Encoding with Visual Imagery......Page 276
The Contribution of Hindsight Bias......Page 277
Strategies to Reduce Overconfidence......Page 278
Review......Page 279
Practice Test......Page 280
CHAPTER 8 Cognition and Intelligence......Page 281
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving......Page 283
Approaches to Problem Solving......Page 286
Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving......Page 289
Making Choices: Selecting an Alternative......Page 290
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities......Page 292
Ignoring Base Rates and the Conjunction Fallacy......Page 293
Overestimating the Improbable......Page 294
Evolutionary Analyses of Flaws in Human Decision Making......Page 295
Fast and Frugal Heuristics......Page 296
A Brief History......Page 297
What Do Modern IQ Scores Mean?......Page 298
Do Intelligence Tests Have Adequate Reliability?......Page 300
Do Intelligence Tests Predict Vocational Success?......Page 301
Evidence for Hereditary Influence......Page 303
Evidence for Environmental Influence......Page 305
The Interaction of Heredity and Environment......Page 306
Cultural Differences in IQ Scores......Page 307
Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior......Page 309
Expanding the Concept of Intelligence......Page 310
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 312
Measuring Creativity......Page 313
Correlates of Creativity......Page 314
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • The Intelligence Debate, Appeals to Ignorance, and Reification......Page 315
Review......Page 317
Practice Test......Page 318
CHAPTER 9 Motivation and Emotion......Page 319
Incentive Theories......Page 321
The Range and Diversity of Human Motives......Page 322
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger......Page 323
Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger......Page 324
The Human Sexual Response......Page 326
Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Motivation......Page 327
The Mystery of Sexual Orientation......Page 330
Individual Differences in the Need for Achievement......Page 333
Situational Determinants of Achievement Behavior......Page 334
The Cognitive Component: Subjective Feelings......Page 335
The Physiological Component: Diffuse and Multifaceted......Page 336
Culture and the Elements of Emotion......Page 339
James-Lange Theory......Page 340
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory......Page 341
Evolutionary Theories of Emotion......Page 342
How Happy Are People?......Page 343
Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness......Page 344
Conclusions About Subjective Well-Being......Page 345
The Anatomy of an Argument......Page 347
Evaluating the Strength of Arguments......Page 348
Review......Page 349
Practice Test......Page 350
CHAPTER 10 Human Development Across the Life Span......Page 351
The Course of Prenatal Development......Page 353
Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development......Page 355
Exploring the World: Motor Development......Page 356
Early Emotional Development: Attachment......Page 357
Becoming Unique: Personality Development......Page 359
The Growth of Thought: Cognitive Development......Page 361
The Development of Moral Reasoning......Page 366
Physiological and Neural Changes......Page 368
Time of Turmoil?......Page 369
The Search for Identity......Page 370
Personality Development......Page 371
Transitions in Family Life......Page 372
Aging and Physical Changes......Page 374
Aging and Cognitive Changes......Page 375
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 376
How Do the Sexes Differ in Behavior?......Page 377
Biological Origins of Gender Differences......Page 378
Environmental Origins of Gender Differences......Page 379
Conclusion......Page 380
Evaluating the Argument......Page 381
Review......Page 383
Practice Test......Page 384
CHAPTER 11 Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment......Page 385
The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits......Page 387
Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives......Page 388
Jung’s Analytical Psychology......Page 394
Adler’s Individual Psychology......Page 395
Skinner’s Ideas Applied to Personality......Page 396
Mischel and the Person-Situation Controversy......Page 398
Humanistic Perspectives......Page 399
Rogers’s Person-Centered Theory......Page 400
Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization......Page 401
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives......Page 402
Biological Perspectives......Page 403
Behavioral Genetics and Personality......Page 404
Essentials of Terror Management Theory......Page 406
Applications of Terror Management Theory......Page 407
Culture and Personality......Page 408
Illustrated Overview of Major Theories of Personality......Page 409
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 411
Self-Report Inventories......Page 412
Projective Tests......Page 413
Hindsight and Personality......Page 415
Other Implications of “20-20 Hindsight”......Page 416
Review......Page 417
Practice Test......Page 418
CHAPTER 12 Stress, Coping, and Health......Page 419
Major Types of Stress......Page 421
Emotional Responses......Page 424
Physiological Responses......Page 426
Behavioral Responses......Page 428
Personality, Hostility, and Heart Disease......Page 430
Emotional Reactions, Depression, and Heart Disease......Page 431
Stress, Other Diseases, and Immune Functioning......Page 432
Sizing Up the Link Between Stress and Illness......Page 433
Factors Moderating the Impact of Stress......Page 434
Smoking......Page 435
Poor Nutritional Habits......Page 436
Behavior and HIV/AIDS......Page 437
Deciding to Seek Treatment......Page 438
Adhering to Medical Advice......Page 439
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 440
Reappraisal: Ellis’s Rational Thinking......Page 441
Releasing Pent-Up Emotions......Page 442
Minimizing Physiological Vulnerability......Page 443
Evaluating Statistics on Health Risks......Page 445
Thinking Systematically About Health Decisions......Page 446
Review......Page 447
Practice Test......Page 448
CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders......Page 449
The Medical Model Applied to Abnormal Behavior......Page 450
Criteria of Abnormal Behavior......Page 451
Psychodiagnosis: The Classi.cation of Disorders......Page 452
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia......Page 454
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 455
Etiology of Anxiety Disorders......Page 456
Somatization Disorder......Page 457
Etiology of Somatoform Disorders......Page 458
Dissociative Identity Disorder......Page 459
Etiology of Mood Disorders......Page 460
Major Depressive Disorder......Page 461
Bipolar Disorder......Page 462
General Symptoms......Page 465
Subtypes and Course......Page 466
Etiology of Schizophrenia......Page 468
Illustrated Overview of Three Categories of Psychological Disorders......Page 471
Culture and Pathology......Page 473
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Understanding Eating Disorders......Page 474
History and Prevalence......Page 475
Etiology of Eating Disorders......Page 476
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Working with Probabilities in Thinking About Mental Illness......Page 477
Review......Page 479
Practice Test......Page 480
CHAPTER 14 Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 481
Clients: Who Seeks Therapy?......Page 483
Therapists: Who Provides Professional Treatment?......Page 484
Psychoanalysis......Page 485
Client-Centered Therapy......Page 487
How Effective Are Insight Therapies?......Page 489
How Do Insight Therapies Work?......Page 490
Systematic Desensitization......Page 491
Aversion Therapy......Page 492
Cognitive-Behavioral Treatments......Page 493
Treatment with Drugs......Page 494
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)......Page 497
Illustrated Overview of Five Major Approaches to Treatment......Page 499
Increasing Multicultural Sensitivity in Treatment......Page 501
Institutional Treatment in Transition......Page 502
Deinstitutionalization......Page 503
Mental Illness, the Revolving Door, and Homelessness......Page 504
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 505
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Looking for a Therapist......Page 506
Is the Therapist’s Theoretical Approach Important?......Page 507
What Is Therapy Like?......Page 508
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • From Crisis to Wellness— But Was It the Therapy?......Page 509
Review......Page 511
Practice Test......Page 512
CHAPTER 15 Social Behavior......Page 513
Effects of Physical Appearance......Page 515
Stereotypes......Page 516
An Evolutionary Perspective on Bias in Person Perception......Page 517
Attributions for Success and Failure......Page 518
Bias in Attribution......Page 519
Culture and Close Relationships......Page 520
Key Factors in Attraction......Page 522
Perspectives on the Mystery of Love......Page 523
An Evolutionary Perspective on Attraction......Page 525
Components and Dimensions of Attitudes......Page 527
Trying to Change Attitudes: Factors in Persuasion......Page 528
Theories of Attitude Formation and Change......Page 529
Conformity......Page 532
Obedience......Page 533
The Power of the Situation: The Stanford Prison Simulation......Page 535
Group Productivity and Social Loa.ng......Page 537
Decision Making in Groups......Page 538
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 540
Stereotyping and Subjectivity in Person Perception......Page 541
Competition Between Groups......Page 543
Threats to Social Identity......Page 544
Recognizing Social In.uence Strategies......Page 545
Review......Page 547
Practice Test......Page 548
Appendix A: Answers to Concept Checks......Page 550
Appendix B: Statistical Methods......Page 556
Appendix C: Critical Thinking About Internet Research: Sources: What Students Need to Know......Page 564
Glossary......Page 570
References......Page 578
Name Index......Page 628
Subject Index......Page 642